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Synonym: Adonite, Ribitol

Adonitol (Ribitol), a pentose alcohol, is metabolized to teicholic acids used in the cell walls of gram positive bacteria. Adonitol is often compared to other cell permeating molecules such as formamide, propanediol, and DMSO as a cryopreservation agent.

Adonitol has similar properties like glycerol and is naturally found in Adonis vernalis.

Adonitol has been used as an internal standard for the quantification of polyribosyl ribitol phosphate using high pH anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC/PAD).

Synonym: Dulcite, Galactitol

Dulcitol (Galactitol), a sugar alcohol derived through reduction of galactose, is important in studies related to cataract formation, hepatosplenomegaly and mental retardation. It is used as a substrate to identify, differentiate and characterize galactitol dehydrogenase(s). Galactitol may be used as a reference compound in analytical procedures developed to analyze sugar alcohols in plants and food.

A sugar alcohol and slightly sweet tastant for human taste cells.

D-(−)-Arabinose is a D-ribose analogue present in sugar polymers such as the arabinogalatans of mycobacterial cell walls and plant tissues. D-Arabinose is a substrate used to identify, differentiate and characterize arabinose isomerase(s) that have commercial value in the production of tagatose, a low calorie sweetener.

D-Arabinose is a reducing sugar. It is a pentose analog of D-ribose that is a constituent of mycobacterial cell wall arabinogalactans. It is also a substrate for D-erythroascorbic acid synthesis in yeast.

L-Arabinose is used as a substrate to identify, differentiate and characterize pentose sugar isomerase(s). L-Arabinose is used in the bioproduction of L-ribose.

L-Arabinose is the naturally occurring isomer and is a constituent of plant polysaccharides. Most bacteria contain an inducible arabinose operon that codes for a series of enzymes and transporters that allows L-arabinose to be used as the sole carbon source in microbial culture.

Synonym: β-D-Glc-(1→4)-D-Glc, 4-O-β-D-Glucopyranosyl-D-glucose

Cellobiose is a disaccharide with the formula (C₆H₇(OH)₄O)₂O. It is classified as a reducing sugar. In terms of its chemical structure, it is derived from the condensation of a pair β-glucose molecules forging a β(1→4) bond. It can be hydrolyzed to glucose enzymatically or with acid. Cellobiose has eight free alcohol (OH) groups, one acetal linkage and one hemiacetal linkage, which give rise to strong inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonds. It is a white solid.

It can be obtained by enzymatic or acidic hydrolysis of cellulose and cellulose-rich materials such as cotton, jute, or paper. Cellobiose can be used as an indicator carbohydrate for Crohn's disease and malabsorption syndrome.

Treatment of cellulose with acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid, gives cellobiose octoacetate, which is no longer a hydrogen bond donor (though it is still a hydrogen bond acceptor) and is soluble in nonpolar organic solvents.

Digoxin may be used as an analytical reference standard for the quantification of the analyte in biological samples using chromatography techniques.

A cardiac glycoside, substrate for Pgp, upregulates Pgp expression and down regulates SXR (Steroid Xenobiotic Receptor).

Synonym: D-Levulose, Fruit sugar

D-Fructose (fruit sugar) is a reducing sugar. In fruits it is a very important sugar component, and mostly exists in free form in plants and often together with sucrose and D-glucose. It is a component of polysaccharide inulin and also a component of di-, tri- and oligo-saccharides.

D-Fructose is an important monosaccharide used in a wide range of applications. D-fructose is used in carbohydrate research, in organic and bioorganic synthesis; as a model compound; as a reference material, as an enzyme substrate and as a nutrient medium.

It can be produced by separation from glucose and by hydrolysis (inversion) of sucrose.1 It also possess metabolic and endocrine impact that shows that increased consumption of fructose is a contributing factor in the development of obesity and the accompanying metabolic abnormalities observed in the insulin resistance syndrome.

Synonym: Galactose

Galactose has been used:
• as a component of galactosyltransferase labeling buffer.
• as a supplement in MRS broth for the growth of thermophilic lactobacilli
• to induce the expression of uncoupling protein (UCP) in yeast transformants

Galactose is a simple monosaccharide that serves as an energy source and as an essential component of glycolipids and glycoproteins. Galactose contributes to energy metabolism via its conversion to glucose by the enzymes that constitute the Leloir pathway. Defects in the genes encoding these proteins lead to the metabolic disorder galactosemia.

Synonym: Mannite

D-Mannitol is the alcohol form of mannose. Its molar mass is 182 g/mol. Mannitol is present widely in plants, fungi and algae. It is extracted mainly from seaweeds. It is used in food for diabetic patients as it is absorbed slowly. It is commonly used as a stabilizer, humectant, nutritive sweetener and bulking agent in food.

D-Mannitol has been used:
• as a hydroxyl radical scavenger and as a medium supplement
• as a hydroxyl radical inhibitor, to detect the hydroxyl radical generation during the reactive oxygen species (ROS) modification of chromatin
• in [³H]-mannitol permeability assay and also as a component in buffer B for measuring the transmonolayer dilution potentials
• as a component in extracellular recording solution for whole cell patch clamp recording

D-Mannitol is used as an osmotic agent for the treatment of brain swellings.
A sugar alcohol sweet tastant. Used in sweetness inhibition studies.

Synonym: D-Mannopyranose

Mannose is a monosaccharide.
Mannose is an aldohexose carbohydrate. It is isomer of glucose with varying C2 position configuration. Majority of mannose is synthesised from its epimer glucose. It is part of the glycans present in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/Golgi.

D-(+)-Mannose, a C-2 epimer of D-glucose, is used in the formation of glycan structure and glycosylation.

D-Mannose has been used in a study to assess the synthesis of a family of amphiphilic glycopolymers. It has also been used in a study to investigate the early detection of bronchiolitis obliterans after lung transplantation. 

D-(+)-Mannose has been used:
•  as a reference standard in monosaccharide analysis and quantification from sea squirts Ascidiella aspersa
•  as a medium component for the selection of P898012 sorgum seeds transfected with Agrobacterium
• in segmented filamentous bacterium (SFB) medium supplement for culturing human cell lines

Mannose, a six-carbon carbohydrate, is the C-2 epimer of glucose and a critical sugar for protein glycosylation. Mannose can also be utilized by the brain as an alternative energy source.

Synonym: Poly-D-galacturonic acid methyl ester

Pectin, a heterosaccharide component of terrestrial plant cell walls, is used as a substrate to identify, differentiate and characterized pectinase(s). Pectin is used to study its degradation by pectinolytic bacteria.

Synonym: O-α-D-Galactopyranosyl-(1→6)-α-D-glucopyranosyl β-D-fructofuranoside, Melitose, Melitriose

D-(+)-Raffinose pentahydrate has been used as a fermentable sugar reference during in vitro colonic fermentation. It has also been used as a constituent of synthetic complete minus uracil media (Sc-ura).

Raffinose is a trisaccharide belonging to a family of oligosaccharides. It is extracted from various plants including beet sugar molasses, cottonseed meal and seed of food legumes.Raffinose improves cell proliferation and immune response. In addition, it also exhibits anti-oxidant and healing property. Raffinose is used as an additive in medicine, food and cosmetics.

Raffinose is a trisaccharide composed of galactose, fructose, and glucose. Raffinose is hydrolysed to D-galactose and sucrose by D-galactosidase.

Synonym: 6-Deoxy-L-mannose, L(+)Rhamnopyranose

L-Rhamnose is a part of plant cell wall polysaccharides, rhamnogalacturonan I and rhamnogalacturonan. It is also present in bacterial cell walland a major antigenic determinant contributing to its pathogenicity. L-rhamnose is non-absorbable in humans but is fermented by intestinal microbes. Supplementation of L-rhamnose slows down gastric emptying. L-rhamnose monosaccharide conjugated immunogens have applications in cancer immunotherapies. Intake of L-rhamnose elevates serum propionate levels.

L-Rhamnose monohydrate has been used:
• in biofilm enhancement assay in S.pneumonia
• as a sugar drink in humans undergoing intestinal barrier permeability test
• for the standard curve generation in high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)

Synonym: 2-(Hydroxymethyl)phenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, Salicoside, Salicyl alcohol glucoside, Saligenin β-D-glucoside

Salicin is a non-phenolic glucosidic compound extracted from meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria L). It is majorly used as a substitute for quinine. Salicin can be used as a therapeutic for patients suffering from rheumatic fever. Salicin acts a metabolic precursor for salicylic acid. It is a novel phytochemical that exhibits immunological cross functions in plants and humans. Salicin facilitates growth and reproduction in plants. In addition, It also protects plants against biotic and abiotic stress.

D-(-)-Salicin has been used:
• to study its in vitro anticoagulant and antiplatelet activities
• as a standard in high performance liquid chromatography method (HPLC) for quantitation of salicin from willow plant
• as a tastant in taste threshold assay
• as a constituent of nutrient agar-salicin medium for selective isolation of Lactobacillus paracasei

Synonym: α,α-Trehalose, α-D-Glucopyranosyl-α-D-glucopyranoside

Trehalose is a non-reducing disaccharide, ubiquitously present in nature. It is used as a food preservative and also to retain enzymes, vaccines, cells and many other molecules.Trehalose is present as hemolymph sugar among the invertebrates.

D-(+)-Trehalose dihydrate has been used in a slow-freezing method for freezing rabbit oocytes. It has also been used in solid-surface vitrification (SSV) of in vitro-matured oocytes.

Use as a cryoprotectant in a variety of cell freezing media.

Trehalose is essential for embryogenesis, carbon metabolism, photosynthesis and flowering in plants. It predominantly exists among the species that supports anhydrobiosis (life without water). It serves as a carbohydrate reserve in microorganisms and protects them from adverse conditions, such as heat, cold, dehydration, desiccation and oxidation. Trehalose acts as a chemical chaperone affecting protein folding. It is known to prevent amyloid generation and accummulation of β-amyloid in vitro. A similar effect of trehalose has been observed with huntingtin protein aggregation. Thus, it might serve as a protective agent in Alzheimer′s disease and Huntington′s disease.

As xanthan is a polysaccharide used in many applications such as a food additive, enzyme substrate or rheology modifier, it is useful to have a xanthan standard with a clearly defined narrow molecular weight distribution. Xanthan is produced by fermentation from Xanthomonas campestris.

Xanthan gum is an anionic polysaccharide composed of a β-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose glucan backbone with side chains of (1→3)-α-D-mannopyranose-(2→1)-β-D-glucuronic acid-(4→1)-β-D-mannopyranose on alternating residues. Approximately half of the terminal mannose residues are 4,6-pyruvated while most of the inner mannose residues are 6-acetylated. Its properties make it a useful matrix component for drug delivery systems. It forms stable drug suspensions in aqueous media and soft gels with locust bean gum or guar gum. Xanthan gum mimics the texture of lipids and is used as a control in experiments where signaling pathways initiated by consumption of lipid-containing reagents are investigated in mice.

Xylitol is a chemical compound with the formula C5H12O5, or HO(CH₂)(CHOH)₃(CH₂)OH; specifically, one particular stereoisomer with that structural formula. It is a colorless or white crystalline solid that is soluble in water. It can be classified as a polyalcohol and a sugar alcohol, specifically an alditol. The name derives from Ancient Greek: ξ??λον, xyl[on], "wood", with the suffix -itol used to denote sugar alcohols.

Xylitol is used as a food additive and sugar substitute. Its European Union code number is E967. Replacing sugar with xylitol in food products may promote better dental health, but evidence is lacking on whether xylitol itself prevents cavities.

Xylitol is a naturally occurring five carbon sugar alcohol, equivalent to sucrose in sweetness. Xylitol finds applications in the preparation of confectionaries, chewing gum, toothpaste and mouthwashes. Xylitol is a low-energy sweetener with insulin independent metabolism, making it a promising alternative for sugar in diabetic patients. Xylitol is a natural anticaries agent used in the treatment of dental caries, as it is not utilized by cariogenic bacteria creates a starvation effect on them. Xylitol prevents otitis and upper respiratory tract infections. Commercially, microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and yeasts produce xylitol by fermentation.

Xylitol has been used:

• as a standard for high performance liquid chromatography
• in analysing antibacterial activity on oral biofilms
• for thermodynamic data and densities measurement

Xylose is a five-carbon sugar that contributes to lignocellulose in plants. Xylose is predominantly found in hardwoods and agricultural residues.

D-(+)-Xylose has been used:
• as one of the component to stimulate microbial activity
• for the enhancement of biofilm formation
• as a part of biochemical tests for the identification of B. cereus group
• for substrate screening characterization

D-Xylose, a principle hemicellulosic sugar in plants and hardwoods, is a main building block for xylan.
Estimation of xylose in the urine after oral administration, is useful in diagnosing absorption of carbohydrates and malabsorption of non-pancreatic molecules. Xylose plays a significant role in the biologically conversion of plant biomass to fuels and chemicals.

Synonym: 6,7-Dihydroxycumarin-6ß-D-glucopyranoside, Esculin

Aesculin, also called æsculin or esculin, is a coumarin glucoside that naturally occurs in the trees horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), California buckeye (Aesculus californica), prickly box (Bursaria spinosa), and daphnin (the dark green resin of Daphne mezereum). It is also found in dandelion coffee.

Synonym: Vitamin B8, 1,2,3,4,5,6-Hexahydroxycyclohexane, i-Inositol, meso-Inositol, myo-Inositol

Inositol is a stereoisomeric form of inositol, and is very often found in many plants and in tissues of animals and plants. It acts as a second messenger, thereby is very important for the signal pathways of cells. It generally finds application in being used as a natural insulin sensitizer in PCOS (Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome) patients. Inositol acts in a PCOS pathway by improving insulin sensitivity, thereby sequentially increasing intracellular glucose uptake.

A component of membrane phospholipids, glycosyl­phosphatidyl­inositol anchors that bind glycoproteins to cell membranes, and inositol phosphate second messengers.

D-(−)-Ribose has been in an in vitro study of the effect of non-enzymatic ribation in modifying bone collagen leading to bone fragility

D-(−)-Ribose has been used for microtissue fabrication and in cell culture.

Ribose is an aldopentose monosaccharide that is phosphorylated into D-ribose 5-phosphate by ribokinase. Ribose-5-phosphate supports the biosynthesis of tryptophan and histidine and is a component of the pentose phosphate pathway.

Synonym: D-Glucitol

Sorbitol less commonly known as glucitol is a sugar alcohol with a sweet taste which the human body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained by reduction of glucose, which changes the converted aldehyde group (−CHO) to a primary alcohol group (−CH2OH). Most sorbitol is made from potato starch, but it is also found in nature for example in apples, pears, peaches, and prunes.

It is converted to fructose by sorbitol-6-phosphate 2-dehydrogenase. Sorbitol is an isomer of mannitol, another sugar alcohol, the two differ only in the orientation of the hydroxyl group on carbon 2

• Sorbitol is a sugar alcohol and slowly metabolized sweetener. 
• Sorbitol, a bacterial culture supplement, is used for the preparation of selective plating media to culture Sorbitol-fermenting bacteria including strains of Escherichia coli and Yersinia enterocolitica. 
• It has also been used as one of the ingredients to prepare Drosophila embryos for immunoelectron microscopy. 
• It has also been used as an additive to glucuronoxylan as potential food packaging material.
• May be used for washing spheroplasts and in isoelectric focusing to minimize endoosmotic flow in agarose gels. May be used to induce osmotic stress.

Sorbitol is a slowly metabolized sugar alcohol produced by reduction of glucose. In the polyol pathway, sorbitol is further oxidized to fructose by sorbitol dehydrogenase. Sorbitol does not diffuse easily across the cell membranes and may cause osmotic damage to the cells. The metabolism of sorbitol is most important in the pathology of diabetes related vascular complications.

Synonym: 4-O-α-D-Glucopyranosyl-D-glucose, Maltobiose

D-(+)-Maltose monohydrate is a disaccharide sugar made up of two α-d-glucose molecules joined by α(1→4) glycosidic bond. Apparent molar volumes of D-(+)-maltose monohydrate has been studied in water and guanidine hydrochloride solutions by density measurement experiment.

D-(+)-Maltose monohydrate is the suitable reagent for the following studies:
• Cell culture studies.
• Insect cell culture studies.
• To study the glass transition temperatures and phase relations for several saccharide-water systems.
• As medium supplement in the modified Luria-Bertani broth (LBM) medium for E. coli strains.
It may be employed as standard for the α-amylase and invertase assays.

D-(+)-Maltose monohydrate has been used:
• as a substrate for the detection of carbohydrase activity

• as a carbohydrate supplement in yeast nitrogen base (YNB) medium for culturing the fungus Leucoagaricus gongylophorus
• as substrate maltase enzyme activity of Leucoagaricus gongylophorus and to determine Michaellis-Menten constant (Km)
• as a reference standard to investigate the mass spectra using gas chromatography-time of flight mass spectroscopy (GC-TOFMS)

Maltose is a disaccharide containing two glucose molecules with an α(1→4) glycosidic linkage. Maltose can be derived from starch in food through the action of amylase. Maltose can be found in many food products, including beer, cereals, and pasta.